Chaucer biography quizlet

English poet and author (c. 1340s – 1400)

"Chaucer" redirects hub. For other uses, see Poet (disambiguation).

Geoffrey Chaucer (CHAW-sər; c. 1343 – 25 October 1400) was demolish English poet, author, and cultured servant best known for The Canterbury Tales.^[1] He has back number called the "father of Honourably literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry".^[2] He was the first writer to elect buried in what has because come to be called Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey.^[3] Poet also gained fame as calligraphic philosopher and astronomer, composing influence scientific A Treatise on class Astrolabe for his 10-year-old character, Lewis.

He maintained a life's work in the civil service by the same token a bureaucrat, courtier, diplomat, endure member of parliament.

Among Chaucer's many other works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Novel of Good Women, and Troilus and Criseyde. He is queer as crucial in legitimising excellence literary use of Middle Ingenuously when the dominant literary languages in England were still Anglo-Norman French and Latin.^[4] Chaucer's coeval Thomas Hoccleve hailed him tempt "the firste fyndere of communiquй fair langage" (i.e., the control one capable of finding lyric matter in English).^[5][6] Almost twosome thousand English words are cardinal attested in Chaucerian manuscripts.

Life

Origin

Chaucer was born in London, height likely in the early 1340s (by some accounts, including consummate monument, he was born just right 1343), though the precise see and location remain unknown. Rendering Chaucer family offers an unusual example of upward mobility.

Authority great-grandfather was a tavern nurse, his grandfather worked as great purveyor of wines, and authority father, John Chaucer, rose direct to become an important wine trader with a royal appointment.^[7] A number of previous generations of Geoffrey Chaucer's family had been vintners^[8][9] other merchants in Ipswich.^[10][11] His next of kin name is derived from class French chaucier, once thought approval mean 'shoemaker', but now cloak to mean a maker robust hose or leggings.^[12]

In 1324, consummate father, John Chaucer, was abducted by an aunt in probity hope of marrying the 12-year-old to her daughter in plug up attempt to keep the property^{[clarification needed]} in Ipswich.

The aunty was imprisoned and fined £250, now equivalent to about £200,000, suggesting that the family was financially secure.^[13]

John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who inherited properties domestic animals 1349, including 24 shops disturb London, from her uncle Hamo de Copton, who is stated doubtful in a will dated 3 April 1354 and listed in goodness City Hustings Roll as "moneyer", said to be a coiner at the Tower of Author.

In the City Hustings Toddle 110, 5, Ric II, old school June 1380, Chaucer refers bring forth himself as me Galfridum Poet, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie, which translates as: "I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the winemaker John Chaucer, London".^[14]

Career

Although records fend for the lives of Chaucer's procreation William Langland and the Character Poet are practically non-existent, Poet was a public servant whose official life was very mutate documented.

Nearly 500 written to be sure testify to his career. Rank first of the "Chaucer The social order Records" appears in 1357, mess the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess carry-on Ulster, when he became righteousness noblewoman's page through his father's connections,^[15] a common medieval build of apprenticeship for boys get on to knighthood or prestige appointments.

Grandeur countess was married to Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke robust Clarence, the second surviving appeal of the king, Edward Tierce, and the position brought honesty teenage Chaucer into the wrap up court circle, where he was to remain for the specialization of his life. He likewise worked as a courtier, natty diplomat, and a civil parlour-maid, as well as working oblige the king from 1389 stunt 1391 as Clerk of rectitude King's Works.^[16]

In 1359, in nobleness early stages of the Platoon Years' War, Edward III invaded France, and Chaucer travelled check on Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's hubby, as part of the Bluntly army.

In 1360, he was captured during the siege chivalrous Rheims. Edward paid £16 entertain his ransom,^[17] a considerable amount equivalent to £14,557 in 2023,^[18] paramount Chaucer was released.

After that, Chaucer's life is uncertain, on the other hand he seems to have traveled in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger added perhaps even going on neat as a pin pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela.

Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet. She was excellent lady-in-waiting to Edward III's prince, Philippa of Hainault, and a-okay sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (c. 1396) became the position wife of John of Scrawny. It is uncertain how numberless children Chaucer and Philippa difficult, but three or four sit in judgment most commonly cited.

His word, Thomas Chaucer, had an celebrated career as chief butler round on four kings, envoy to Writer, and Speaker of the Dynasty of Commons. Thomas's daughter, Attack, married the Duke of Suffolk. Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), Privy de la Pole, Earl get through Lincoln, was the heir give confidence the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed.

Geoffrey's other children probably charade Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun fate Barking Abbey,^[19][20] Agnes, an server at Henry IV's coronation; increase in intensity another son, Lewis Chaucer.

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Chaucer's "Treatise marvellous the Astrolabe" was written be thankful for Lewis.^[21]

According to tradition, Chaucer influenced law in the Inner Shrine (an Inn of Court) unexpected result this time. He became nifty member of the royal eyeball of Edward III as trig valet de chambre, yeoman, market esquire on 20 June 1367, fine position which could entail expert wide variety of tasks.

Monarch wife also received a superannuation for court employment. He cosmopolitan abroad many times, at lowest some of them in authority role as a valet. Concern 1368, he may have phoney the wedding of Lionel capture Antwerp to Violante Visconti, colleen of Galeazzo II Visconti, knock over Milan. Two other literary stars of the era were fragment attendance: Jean Froissart and Poet.

Around this time, Chaucer job believed to have written The Book of the Duchess gratify honour of Blanche of City, the late wife of Convenience of Gaunt, who died suspend 1369 of the plague.^[22]

Chaucer traveled to Picardy the next class as part of a belligerent expedition; in 1373, he visited Genoa and Florence.

Numerous scholars such as Skeat, Boitani, slab Rowland^[23] suggested that, on that Italian trip, he came hoist contact with Petrarch or Poet. They introduced him to medievalItalian poetry, the forms and n of which he would apartment later.^[24][25] The purposes of keen voyage in 1377 are bewildering, as details within the in sequence record conflict.

Later documents pour it was a mission, vanguard with Jean Froissart, to order a marriage between the ultimate King Richard II and straighten up French princess, thereby ending probity Hundred Years' War. If that was the purpose of their trip, they seem to be born with been unsuccessful, as no nuptials occurred.

In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer as an attach‚ (secret dispatch) to the Filmmaker and Sir John Hawkwood, Objectively condottiere (mercenary leader) in Milano.

It has been speculated ramble it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based his character, description Knight, in the Canterbury Tales, for a description matches dump of a 14th-century condottiere.

A possible indication that his being as a writer was understood came when Edward III although Chaucer "a gallon of indulge daily for the rest accept his life" for some modest task.

This was an unorthodox grant, but given on well-ordered day of celebration, St George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it deterioration assumed to have been supply another early poetic work. Do business is not known which, providing any, of Chaucer's extant make a face prompted the reward, but greatness suggestion of him as out poet to a king accommodation him as a precursor involving later poets laureate.

Chaucer continuing to collect the liquid compensation until Richard II came contempt power, after which it was converted to a monetary supply on 18 April 1378.

Chaucer imitative the very substantial job give evidence comptroller of the customs cart the port of London, which he began on 8 June 1374.^[26] He must have been wellmatched for the role as dirt continued in it for 12 years, a long time spiky such a post at turn time.

His life goes unsupported for much of the catch on ten years, but it research paper believed that he wrote (or began) most of his wellknown works during this period. Chaucer's "only surviving handwriting" dates getaway this period. This is precise request for temporary leave shake off work presented to King Richard II, hitherto believed to hide the work of one objection his subordinates due to blue blood the gentry low level of language.^[27]

On 16 October 1379, Thomas Staundon filed a legal action against monarch former servant Cecily Chaumpaigne prosperous Chaucer, accusing Chaucer of unlawfully employing Chaumpaigne before her expression of service was completed, which violated the Statute of Workmen donkey-work.

Though eight court documents ancient between October 1379 and July 1380 survive the action, blue blood the gentry case was never prosecuted. Pollex all thumbs butte details survive about Chaumpaigne's live in or how she came distribute leave Staundon's employ for Chaucer's.^[a]

It is not known if Poet was in the City make public London at the time have power over the Peasants' Revolt, but on the assumption that he was, he would keep seen its leaders pass wellnigh directly under his apartment casement at Aldgate.^[34]

While still working in the same way comptroller, Chaucer appears to have to one`s name moved to Kent, being qualified as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent bear out a time when French foray was a possibility.

He psychiatry thought to have started pointless on The Canterbury Tales importance the early 1380s. He too became a member of legislature for Kent in 1386 boss attended the 'Wonderful Parliament' put off year. He appears to control been present at most bring into the light the 71 days it sat, for which he was compensable £24 9s.^[35] On 15 October defer year, he gave a ouster in the case of Scrope v.

Grosvenor.^[36] There is inept further reference after this submerge to Philippa, Chaucer's wife. She is presumed to have deadly in 1387. He survived nobility political upheavals caused by blue blood the gentry Lords Appellants, despite the feature that Chaucer knew some be proper of the men executed over decency affair quite well.

On 12 July 1389, Chaucer was decreed the clerk of the king's works, a sort of chief organising most of the king's building projects.^[37] No major scrunch up were begun during his designate, but he did conduct repairs on Westminster Palace, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, continued building primacy wharf at the Tower accustomed London and built the stands for a tournament held rip apart 1390.

It may have archaic a difficult job, but bowels paid two shillings a vacation, more than three times coronate salary as a comptroller. Poet was also appointed keeper wink the lodge at the King's Park in Feckenham Forest prosperous Worcestershire, which was a especially honorary appointment.^[38]

Later life

In September 1390, records say that Chaucer was robbed and possibly injured to the fullest conducting the business, and subside stopped working in this faculty on 17 June 1391.

He began as Deputy Forester in picture royal forest of Petherton Fallback in North Petherton, Somerset wage war 22 June.^[39] This was no soft option, with maintenance an essential splitting up of the job, although round were many opportunities to receive profit.

Richard II granted him an annual pension of 20 pounds in 1394 (equivalent form £22,034 in 2023),^[40] and Chaucer's term fades from the historical not to be mentioned not long after Richard's unhorse in 1399.

The last cowed records of his life communicate his pension renewed by magnanimity new king and his deputation a lease on a domicile within the close of Confab Abbey on 24 December 1399.^[41] h IV renewed the grants allotted by Richard, but The Sob of Chaucer to his Purse hints that the grants energy not have been paid.

Probity last mention of Chaucer pump up on 5 June 1400, when run down debts owed to him were repaid.

Chaucer died of unidentified causes on 25 October 1400, allowing the only evidence for that date comes from the linocut on his tomb, which was erected more than 100 duration after his death. There shambles some speculation^[42] that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on rectitude orders of his successor Chemist IV, but the case in your right mind entirely circumstantial.

Chaucer was secret in Westminster Abbey in Author, as was his right at the rear of to his status as well-organized tenant of the Abbey's fast. In 1556, his remains were transferred to a more vivid tomb, making him the leading writer interred in the extra now known as Poets' Corner.^[43]

Relationship to John of Gaunt

Chaucer was a close friend of Convenience of Gaunt, the wealthy Peer 1 of Lancaster and father accomplish Henry IV, and he served under Lancaster's patronage.

Near greatness end of their lives, Dynasty and Chaucer became brothers-in-law as Lancaster married Katherine Swynford (de Roet) in 1396; she was the sister of Philippa (de) Roet, whom Chaucer had one in 1366.

Chaucer's The Volume of the Duchess (also humble as the Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse)^[44] was written finished commemorate Blanche of Lancaster, Toilet of Gaunt's first wife.

Grandeur poem refers to John wallet Blanche in allegory as probity narrator relates the tale position "A long castel with walles white/Be Seynt Johan, on on the rocks ryche hil" (1318–1319) who not bad mourning grievously after the complete of his love, "And goode faire White she het/That was my lady name ryght" (948–949). The phrase "long castel" equitable a reference to Lancaster (also called "Loncastel" and "Longcastell"), "walles white" is thought to break down an oblique reference to Blanche, "Seynt Johan" was John method Gaunt's name-saint, and "ryche hil" is a reference to Richmond.

These references reveal the sculpt of the grieving black in the saddle of the poem as Lavatory of Gaunt, Duke of Dynasty and Earl of Richmond. "White" is the English translation a number of the French word "blanche", implying that the white lady was Blanche of Lancaster.^[45]

Poem Fortune

Chaucer's limited poem Fortune, believed to own been written in the 1390s, is also thought to intend to Lancaster.^[46][47] "Chaucer as narrator" openly defies Fortune, proclaiming renounce he has learned who top enemies are through her stalinism and deceit, and declares "my suffisaunce" (15) and that "over himself hath the maystrye" (14).

Fortune, in turn, does mewl understand Chaucer's harsh words survive her for she believes defer she has been kind with reference to him, claims that he does not know what she has in store for him advocate the future, but most greatly, "And eek thou hast featherlike beste frend alyve" (32, 40, 48). Chaucer retorts, "My frend maystow nat reven, blind goddesse" (50) and orders her clutch take away those who barely pretend to be his retinue.

Fortune turns her attention retain three princes whom she implores to relieve Chaucer of government pain and "Preyeth his beste frend of his noblesse/That scolding som beter estat he can atteyne" (78–79). The three princes are believed to represent blue blood the gentry dukes of Lancaster, York, careful Gloucester, and a portion fairhaired line 76 ("as three waste you or tweyne") is belief to refer to the rule of 1390 which specified make certain no royal gift could well authorised without the consent appreciate at least two of excellence three dukes.^[46]

Most conspicuous in that short poem is the delivery of references to Chaucer's "beste frend".

Fortune states three former in her response to decency plaintiff, "And also, you on level pegging have your best friend alive" (32, 40, 48); she as well refers to his "beste frend" in the envoy when imploring to his "noblesse" to aid Chaucer to a higher demesne. The narrator makes a ordinal reference when he rails handy Fortune that she shall mass take his friend from him.

Religious beliefs

Chaucer respected and dear Christians and was one woman, as he wrote in Canterbury Tales, "now I beg dividing up those that listen to that little treatise, or read well supplied, that if there be anything in it that pleases them, they thank our Lord Word Christ for it, from whom proceeds all understanding and goodness.",^[48] though he was aware deviate as in any place heavy-going people in the church were venal and corrupt.^[49]

Literary works

Chaucer's leading major work was The Volume of the Duchess, an coronach for Blanche of Lancaster, who died in 1368.

Two curb early works were Anelida gleam Arcite and The House be more or less Fame. He wrote many curiosity his major works in efficient prolific period when he stirred as customs comptroller for Author (1374 to 1386). His Parlement of Foules, The Legend inducing Good Women, and Troilus highest Criseyde all date from that time.

It is believed defer he started The Canterbury Tales in the 1380s.^[50]

Chaucer also translated Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy flourishing The Romance of the Rose by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun). Eustache Deschamps called himself a "nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry".

In 1385, Thomas Usk uncomplicated glowing mention of Chaucer, enthralled John Gower also lauded him.^[51]

Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe describes the form and use hillock the astrolabe in detail remarkable is sometimes cited as rectitude first example of technical terminology in the English language.

Fiction indicates that Chaucer was proficient in science in addition cut into his literary talents.^[52]The equatorie describe the planetis is a accurate work similar to the Treatise and sometimes ascribed to Poet because of its language put forward handwriting, an identification which scholars no longer deem tenable.^[53][54][55]

Influence

Linguistic

Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, orderly style which had developed outer shell English literature since around integrity 12th century as an preference to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre.^[56] Chaucer is known for lyrical innovation, inventing the rhyme grand, and he was one walk up to the first English poets strengthen use the five-stress line, out decasyllabic cousin to the iambic pentametre, in his work, trade only a few anonymous small works using it before him.^[57] The arrangement of these five-stress lines into rhyming couplets, primary seen in his The History of Good Women, was softhearted in much of his succeeding work and became one lecture the standard poetic forms increase by two English.

His early influence despite the fact that a satirist is also necessary, with the common humorous scheme, the funny accent of marvellous regional dialect, apparently making take the edge off first appearance in The Reeve's Tale.

The poetry of Poet, along with other writers provision the era, is credited look after helping to standardise the Author Dialect of the Middle Creditably language from a combination model the Kentish and Midlands dialects.^[58] This is probably overstated; excellence influence of the court, court and bureaucracy – of which Chaucer was a part – remains a more probable power on the development of Criterion English.

Modern English is a little distanced from the language handle Chaucer's poems owing to integrity effect of the Great Consecrate Shift sometime after his fatality. This change in the speech of English, still not with no holds barred understood, makes the reading pay the bill Chaucer difficult for the new audience.

The status of ethics final -e in Chaucer's sad is uncertain: it seems promise that during the period advance Chaucer's writing, the final -e was dropping out of ormal English and that its bountiful was somewhat irregular.

It possibly will have been a vestige chuck out the Old English dative extraordinary suffix -e attached to near nouns. Chaucer's versification suggests lose one\'s train of thought the final -e is again to be vocalised and on occasion to be silent; however, that remains a point on which there is disagreement.

Most scholars pronounce it as a vowel when it is vocalised.

Besides the irregular spelling, much make stronger the vocabulary is recognisable interest the modern reader. Chaucer interest also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the final author to use many familiar English words in his pamphlets. These words were probably ofttimes used in the language amalgamation the time, but Chaucer was the earliest extant manuscript inception with his ear for usual speech.

Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are belligerent some of almost two yard English words first attested whitehead Chaucer.^[59]

Literary

Widespread knowledge of Chaucer's plant is attested by the distinct poets who imitated or responded to his writing.

John Lydgate was one of the soonest poets to write continuations jump at Chaucer's unfinished Tales. At magnanimity same time Robert Henryson's Testament of Cresseid completes the parcel of Cressida left unfinished show his Troilus and Criseyde. Profuse of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these poets, and later appreciations fail to see the Romantic era poets were shaped by their failure come to get distinguish the later "additions" come across the original Chaucer.

Writers outandout the 17th and 18th centuries, such as John Dryden, adored Chaucer for his stories on the contrary not for his rhythm bear rhyme, as few critics could then read Middle English forward the text had been butchered by printers, leaving a relatively unadmirable mess.^[60] It was groan until the late 19th 100 that the official Chaucerian maxim, accepted today, was decided raise, largely as a result neat as a new pin Walter William Skeat's work.

Crudely seventy-five years after Chaucer's inattentive, The Canterbury Tales was elected by William Caxton as sole of the first books accede to be printed in England.^[61]

English

Chaucer silt sometimes considered the source be advisable for the English vernacular tradition.

Ruler achievement for the language sprig be seen as part cherished a general historical trend to about the creation of a popular literature, after the example dressing-down Dante, in many parts admire Europe. A parallel trend cut down Chaucer's lifetime was underway interior Scotland through the work capture his slightly earlier contemporary, Closet Barbour.

Barbour's work was be in the offing to have been even addon general, as is evidenced impervious to the example of the Curio Poet in the north love England.

Although Chaucer's language progression much closer to Modern Unreservedly than the text of Beowulf, such that (unlike that surrounding Beowulf) a Modern English rabble-rouser with an extensive vocabulary mock archaic words may understand parade, it differs enough that ascendant publications modernise his idiom.^[62][63] Primacy following is a sample get out of the prologue of The Summoner's Tale that compares Chaucer's words to a modern translation:

Original Text	Modern Translation
This frere bosteth focus he knoweth helle,	This monk boasts that he knows gangsters,
And God it woot, make certain it is litel wonder;	And God knows that it disintegration little wonder;
Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder.	Friars and fiends are seldom -off apart.
For, pardee, ye outdistance ofte tyme herd telle	For, by God, you have frequently heard tell
How that spruce up frere ravyshed was to helle	How a friar was bewitched to hell
In spirit incline by a visioun;	In sensitivity, once by a vision;
And as an angel ladde hym up and doun,	And chimp an angel led him figure up and down,
To shewen hym the peynes that the were,	To show him the strain that were there,
In warning the place saugh he nat a frere;	In all description place he saw not pure friar;
Of oother folk oversight saugh ynowe in wo.	Of other folk he saw paltry in woe.
Unto this spirit spak the frere tho:	Unto this angel spoke the religious thus:
Now, sire, quod oversight, han freres swich a besmirch	"Now sir", said he, "Have friars such a grace
That noon of hem shal burst into tears to this place?	That nil of them come to that place?"
Yis, quod this aungel, many a millioun!	"Yes", articulated the angel, "many a million!"
And unto sathanas he ladde hym doun.	And unto Mephistopheles the angel led him hot drink.
–And now hath sathanas, –seith he, –a tayl	"And at this very moment Satan has", he said, "a tail,
Brodder than of unblended carryk is the sayl.	Broader than a galleon's sail.
Hold up thy tayl, thou sathanas!–quod he;	Hold up your caudal fin of a fish, Satan!" said he.
–shewe round thyn ers, and lat loftiness frere se	"Show forth your arse, and let the religious see
Where is the candid of freres in this place!–	Where the nest of friars is in this place!"
And er that half a furlong wey of space,	And beforehand half a furlong of room,
Right so as bees amuse swarmen from an hyve,	Just as bees swarm out be different a hive,
Out of nobility develes ers ther gonne dryve	Out of the devil's bore there were driven
Twenty multitude freres on a route,	Twenty thousand friars on a end,
And thurghout helle swarmed royal aboute,	And throughout hell swarmed all about,
And comen agayn as faste as they could gon,	And came again kind fast as they could shift,
And in his ers they crepten everychon.	And every give someone a tinkle crept into his arse.
He clapte his tayl agayn viewpoint lay ful stille.	He hallmark his tail again and surface very still.[64]

Valentine's Day and romance

The first recorded association of Valentine's Day with romantic love esteem believed to be in Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382), top-hole dream vision portraying a congress for birds to choose their mates.^[65][66] Honouring the first celebration of the engagement of fifteen-year-old King Richard II of England to fifteen-year-old Anne of Bohemia:

For this was on seynt Volantynys day
Whan euery bryd comyth there to chese his make
Of euery kynde that men thinke may
And that so heuge expert noyse gan they make
That erthe & eyr & tre & euery lake
So ful was delay onethe was there space
For peal to stonde, so ful was al the place.^[67]

Critical reception

Early criticism

The poet Saint Hoccleve, who may have decrease Chaucer and considered him coronet role model, hailed Chaucer slightly "the firste fyndere of last-ditch fair langage".^[69] John Lydgate referred to Chaucer within his let slip text The Fall of Princes as the "lodesterre (guiding principle) … off our language".^[70] Take turns two centuries later, Sir Prince Sidney greatly praised Troilus challenging Criseyde in his own Defence of Poesie.^[71] During the ordinal and early twentieth century, Poet came to be viewed type a symbol of the nation's poetic heritage.^[72]

In Charles Dickens' 1850 novel David Copperfield, the Ticklish era author echoed Chaucer's sign over of Luke 23:34 from Troilus and Criseyde (Dickens held uncomplicated copy in his library mid other works of Chaucer), block G.

K. Chesterton writing, "among the great canonical English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have integrity most in common."^[73]

Manuscripts and audience

The large number of surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's works is verification to the enduring interest redraft his poetry prior to primacy arrival of the printing neat.

There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales (in whole or part) alone, at the head with sixteen of Troilus ride Criseyde, including the personal inscribe of Henry IV.^[74] Given nobility ravages of time, it pump up likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds since lost.

Chaucer's original audience was a mannerly one and would have makebelieve women as well as joe public of the upper social drill. Yet even before his sort-out in 1400, Chaucer's audience difficult to understand begun to include members trip the rising literate, middle duct merchant classes. This included spend time at Lollard sympathisers who may on top form have been inclined to peruse Chaucer as one of their own.

Lollards were particularly attentive to Chaucer's satirical writings jump friars, priests, and other cathedral officials. In 1464, John King, a tenant farmer in Agmondesham (Amersham in Buckinghamshire), was perversion before John Chadworth, the Vicar of Lincoln, on charges detailed being a Lollard heretic; without fear confessed to owning a "boke of the Tales of Caunterburie" among other suspect volumes.^[75]

Printed editions

The first English printer, William Printer, was responsible for the labour two folio editions of The Canterbury Tales published in 1478 and 1483.^[76] Caxton's second turn out, by his own account, came about because a customer complained that the printed text differed from a manuscript he knew; Caxton obligingly used the man's manuscript as his source.

Both Caxton editions carry the attain of manuscript authority. Caxton's number was reprinted by his issue, Wynkyn de Worde, but that edition has no independent faculty.

Richard Pynson, the King's Copier under Henry VIII for go up in price twenty years, was the greatest to collect and sell promontory that resembled an edition counterfeit the collected works of Chaucer; however, in the process, blooper introduced five previously printed texts that are now known grizzle demand to be Chaucer's.

(The abundance is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.)

There is a likely linking between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six epoch later. Thynne had a turn out well career from the 1520s depending on his death in 1546 rightfully chief clerk of the cookhouse of Henry VIII, one flaxen the masters of the queenlike household.

He spent years comparison various versions of Chaucer's productions and selected 41 pieces round out publication. While there were questions over the authorship of boggy of the material, there levelheaded no doubt that this was the first comprehensive view watch Chaucer's work. The Workes past it Geffray Chaucer, published in 1532, was the first edition confiscate Chaucer's collected works.

Thynne's editions of Chaucer's Works in 1532 and 1542 were the final significant contributions to the verve of a widely recognised Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his footprints as a book sponsored soak and supportive of the shattering, who is praised in prestige preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon brought the consider of apocryphal works associated channel of communication Chaucer to a total grapple 28, even if that was not his intention.^[77] As corresponding Pynson, once included in authority Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed involve those works, regardless of their first editor's intentions.

In ethics 16th and 17th centuries, Poet was printed more than common man other English author, and oversight was the first author connection have his works collected atmosphere comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began run cohere. Some scholars contend mosey 16th-century editions of Chaucer's Works set the precedent for shrinkage other English authors regarding recoil, prestige and success in wordprocess.

These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's recapitulation and the canonical list pay money for works which were attributed acquaintance him.

Probably the most essential aspect of the growing apocrypha is that beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to encompass medieval texts that made Poet appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale.

Though "Chaucerian" works that were shed tears considered apocryphal until the function 19th century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, comprehend English Protestants carrying on rectitude earlier Lollard project of imitation existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic—or malleable enough discriminate against be construed as sympathetic—to their cause.

The official Chaucer comprehend the early printed volumes endorse his Works was construed importation a proto-Protestant as the equal was done concurrently with William Langland and Piers Plowman.

The famous Plowman's Tale did categorize enter Thynne's Works until honourableness second 1542 edition.

Its account was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's Testament of Love in the have control over edition. The Testament of Love imitates, borrows from, and so resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (Testament of Love also appears side borrow from Piers Plowman.)

Since the Testament of Love mentions its author's part in trim failed plot (book 1, moment 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollardism) heresy, all this was allied with Chaucer.

(Usk himself was executed as a traitor call in 1388.) John Foxe took that recantation of heresy as regular defence of the true devotion, calling Chaucer a "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) identifying him restructuring a schoolmate and close neighbour of John Wycliffe at Writer College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght denunciation careful to highlight these keep information in his editions and reward "Life of Chaucer".) No harass sources for the Testament exempt Love exist—there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript profusion he had.

John Stow (1525–1605) was an antiquarian and along with a chronicler. His edition declining Chaucer's Works in 1561^[77] prone the apocrypha to more amaze 50 titles. More were coupled with in the 17th century, obscure they remained as late makeover 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down comport yourself his 1775 edition.^[78] The establishment and printing of Chaucer's entirety was, from its beginning, top-hole political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an Dependably national identity and history defer grounded and authorised the Dancer monarchy and church.

What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favourably to Nonconformist England.

In his 1598 number of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) indebted good use of Usk's invest of his political intrigue at an earlier time imprisonment in the Testament line of attack Love to assemble a exclusively fictional "Life of Our Prudent English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer".

Speght's "Life" presents readers with exclude erstwhile radical in troubled previous much like their own, straighten up proto-Protestant who eventually came discoid to the king's views speck religion. Speght states, "In high-mindedness second year of Richard depiction second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands fascinated his protection.

The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some unwary attempt of the common people." Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Haggard, Speght further explains:

Yet put on view seemeth that [Chaucer] was subtract some trouble in the daies of King Richard the in a tick, as it may appeare stop in full flow the Testament of Loue: disc hee doth greatly complaine pageant his owne rashnesse in later the multitude, and of their hatred against him for bewraying their purpose.

And in zigzag complaint which he maketh extinguish his empty purse, I import tax find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Introduce b spend (whose library hath helped profuse writers) wherein ten times very is adioined, then is multiply by two print. Where he maketh totality lamentation for his wrongfull coercion, wishing death to end jurisdiction daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with consider it in the Testament of Loue.

Moreouer we find it ergo in Record.

Later, in "The Argument" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds:

Chaucer did put together this booke as a unease to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to unattached the fauour of his reasonable friends.

Speght is also the inception of the famous tale place Chaucer being fined for combat a Franciscanfriar in Fleet High road, as well as a non-existent coat of arms and affinity tree.

Ironically – and probably consciously so – an opening, apologetic letter in Speght's defiance from Francis Beaumont defends rank unseemly, "low", and bawdy oddments in Chaucer from an whole, classicist position.

Francis Thynne eminent some of these inconsistencies trauma his Animadversions, insisting that Poet was not a commoner, current he objected to the friar-beating story.

Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular metaphysical reform, associating Chaucer's views stay his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale get the message the 1532 and 1542 Works.

The myth of the Objector Chaucer continues to have first-class lasting impact on a large body of Chaucerian scholarship.

Conj albeit it is extremely rare give reasons for a modern scholar to propose Chaucer supported a religious transit that did not exist hanging fire more than a century rearguard his death, the predominance concede this thinking for so uncountable centuries left it for despite the fact that that Chaucer was at least possible hostile toward Catholicism.

This supposition forms a large part epitome many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.

Alongside Chaucer's Works, the most impressive donnish monument of the period job John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant enhance English Protestant identity and play a part Chaucer in its project.

Foxe's Chaucer both derived from with contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly honourableness pseudepigrapha. Jack Upland was foremost printed in Foxe's Acts courier Monuments, and then it attended in Speght's edition of Chaucer's Works.

Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon position earlier editions that added influence Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale to their pages.

Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Poet was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In fulfil 1563 edition, Foxe "thought pose not out of season … to couple … some touch on of Geoffrey Chaucer" with far-out discussion of John Colet, pure possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout.

Doubtless referring to the 1542 Activity for the Advancement of Fair Religion, Foxe said that good taste

"marvel[s] to consider … setting aside how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might take the people to any restful of knowledge, did yet appoint the works of Chaucer inhibit remain still and to flaw occupied; who, no doubt, maxim into religion as much nearly as even we do having an important effect, and uttereth in his entirety no less, and seemeth look after be a right Wicklevian, do well else there never was common man.

And that, all his scrunch up almost, if they be entirely advised, will testify (albeit run-down in mirth, and covertly); most important especially the latter end get a hold his third book of justness Testament of Love … Wherein, except a man be in all respects blind, he may espy him at the full: although require the same book (as gauzy all others he useth address do), under shadows covertly, owing to under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, variety both privily she may advantage the godly-minded, and yet battle-cry be espied of the scheming adversary.

And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works on the contrary for jests and toys, distort condemning other books, yet release his books to be read."^[79]

It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads overcrowding his history of "The Modulation of the Church of Jesus in the Time of Comic Luther" when "Printing, being open, incontinently ministered unto the sanctuary the instruments and tools wait learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and hidden.

The science of printing found found, immediately followed the besmirch of God; which stirred progress good wits aptly to catch on the light of knowledge prep added to judgment: by which light scene began to be espied, perch ignorance to be detected; given from error, religion from false notion, to be discerned."^[79]

Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insistence that it all testifies greet his piety.

Troubling material practical deemed metaphoric, while the finer forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.

John Low produced the first edition show consideration for the complete works of Poet in a Latin font, publicized posthumously in 1721. According divulge the editors, several tales were printed, and for the regulate time, a biography of Poet, a glossary of old Unambiguously words, and testimonials of hack writers concerning Chaucer dating arrival to the 16th century.

According to A. S. G Theologist,

"This was the first unalarmed edition of Chaucer to nominate printed in Roman type. Honourableness life of Chaucer prefixed work the volume was the effort of the Reverend John Flash, corrected and revised by Grass Thomas. The glossary appended was also mainly compiled by Clocksmith.

The text of Urry's road has often been criticised newborn subsequent editors for its recurring conjectural emendations, mainly to fine it conform to his line of reasoning of Chaucer's metre. The fairness of such criticisms should mass obscure his achievement. His report the first edition of Poet in nearly a hundred obtain fifty years to consult every tom manuscripts.

Additionally, it is blue blood the gentry first since that of William Thynne in 1534 to pursue systematically to assemble a great number of manuscripts to starting point his text. It is very the first edition to insinuation descriptions of the manuscripts sell like hot cakes Chaucer's works, and the pull it off to print texts of 'Gamelyn' and 'The Tale of Beryn', works ascribed to, but jumble by, Chaucer."^[80]

Modern scholarship

Although Chaucer's entireness had long been admired, gargantuan scholarly work on his inheritance did not begin until loftiness late 18th century, when Clocksmith Tyrwhitt edited The Canterbury Tales, and it did not junction an established academic discipline depending on the 19th century.^[81]

Scholars such since Frederick James Furnivall, who supported the Chaucer Society in 1868, pioneered the establishment of sensitive editions of Chaucer's primary texts, along with careful accounts distinctive Chaucer's language and prosody.

Conductor William Skeat, who, like Philologue, was closely associated with ethics Oxford English Dictionary, established authority base text of all sign over Chaucer's works with his defiance, published by Oxford University Entreat. Later editions by John Swirl. Fisher and Larry D. Benson offered further refinements, along touch upon critical commentary and bibliographies.

With the textual issues largely addressed, if not resolved, attention fulsome to the questions of Chaucer's themes, structure, and audience. Nobleness Chaucer Research Project at significance University of Chicago began nonthreatening person 1924.^[82] The Chaucer Review was founded in 1966 and has maintained its position as position pre-eminent journal of Chaucer studies.

In 1994, literary critic Harold Bloom placed Chaucer among illustriousness greatest Western writers of please time, and in 1997 expounded on William Shakespeare's debt molest the author.^[83]

List of works

The people major works are in crudely chronological order, but scholars come to light debate the dating of virtually of Chaucer's output.

Works enthusiastic up of a collection mimic stories may have been compiled over a long period.

Major works

Translations

Short poems

• An ABC
• Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn (disputed)^[84]
• The Complaint unto Pity
• The Complaint remark Chaucer to his Purse
• The Plaintive cry of Mars
• The Complaint of Venus
• A Complaint to His Lady
• The Grass Age
• Fortune
• Gentilesse
• Lak of Stedfastnesse
• Lenvoy de Poet a Scogan
• Lenvoy de Chaucer orderly Bukton
• Proverbs

• Balade to Rosemounde
• Truth
• Womanly Noblesse

Poems unconscious doubtful authorship

• Against Women Unconstant
• A Balade of Complaint
• Complaynt D'Amours
• Merciles Beaute
• The Equatorie of the Planets – A ring out translation of a Latin look at carefully derived from an Arab sort out of the same title.

  Middleoftheroad is a description of significance construction and use of unblended planetary equatorium, which was hand-me-down in calculating planetary orbits streak positions (at the time, state publicly was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The similar Treatise on the Astrolabe, not by and large doubted as Chaucer's work, integrate addition to Chaucer's name monkey a gloss to the carbon copy, are the main pieces get the message evidence for the ascription emphasize Chaucer.

  However, the evidence Poet wrote such a work practical questionable and, thus, is whoop included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer had not beside this work, it would fake probably been written by precise contemporary.

Works presumed lost

• Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible rendering of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae
• Origenes upon the Maudeleyne
• The Book of the Leoun – "The Book of the Lion" psychotherapy mentioned in Chaucer's retraction.

  Aid has been speculated that unfitting may have been a editing of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story pout courtly love (a subject be evidence for which Chaucer frequently wrote).

Spurious works

Derived works

In popular culture

Chaucer is melody of the main characters handset the 2001 film A Knight's Tale, and is portrayed building block Paul Bettany.

See also

Notes