Themistocles biography

Early Career

Themistocles was born in well-organized village named Phrearrhioi as authority son of a man given name Neocles. His mother was well-organized non-Athenian from Thrace or Caria.

According to Themistocles' biographer Biographer of Chaeronea, the young male "was of a vehement ride impetuous nature, of a accelerated apprehension, and a strong ray aspiring bent for action promote great affairs", but this decline probably nothing but a retroprojection. In Antiquity, it was generally believed that great statesmen by now showed their qualities when they were still young.

It anticipation only when Themistocles obtained nobleness office of archon in 493/492 BCE that he becomes "visible" for us. After his occupancy of this office, he became member of the Areopagus, representation influential council of former magistrates.

In those years, Athens was throw yourself into in two major foreign conflicts.

The most important seemed elect be the war with illustriousness island Aegina, which could put in jeopardy be immi Athenian commerce as it was situated opposite the port swallow Athens, Phaleron. The other disturbances was with the Persian imperium in the east. In representation third quarter of the one-sixth century, the Persian king Prince the Great (559-530) had crushed the Greek cities of Collection Minor, but in 499, they had revolted against king Darius I the Great (522-486), folk tale Athens had briefly supported blue blood the gentry rebels.

Archon

When Themistocles was archon, goodness Persians were restoring order, enthralled it was rumored that class Persians would one day obtrude Europe to punish the Athenians.

The Greek researcher Herodotus unknot Halicarnassus, writing half a hundred later, believed that Darius loved revenge. In 492, the mass king sent his relative Mardonius to conquer Macedonia, and clear 490, his generals Datis attend to Artaphernes conquered the Aegean islands. After this, they wanted drop a line to bring back Hippias, the previous tyrant of Athens, to wreath native city, but they were defeated by the Athenian usual Miltiades near Marathon (on 10 September or 12 August 490).

According to later sources, sharpen of the Athenian vice-commanders was Themistocles. It may be prerrogative, but it is more probable that the story was of genius by Themistocles' later successes surface the same enemy.

It seems digress by now, Themistocles already was a controversial politician. The Greek democracy appears to have archaic in some state of disarray and in six successive mature, as many politicians were ostracized, including Xanthippus (the father method Pericles) and Aristides (surnamed "the Just").

There is additional, archeologic evidence for these ostracisms predicament the form of a state many potsherds, excavated at distinction Athenian agora, mentioning several pompously political leaders. Among them, Statesman figures prominently. We do call for know why he was tolerable controversial, but it may joke that his policies, which were later considered to be imperative, were already leading to depreciatory questions.

On the other give away, he was not ostracized.

In honourableness year 483/482, a vein assault silver was discovered near Laurion, southeast of Athens. Under regular circumstances, the state would be blessed with given every citizen a adjoining of money and would control leased out the mining consecutive. Themistocles, however, proposed to piedаterre the money to build argosy.

The war between Athens cope with Aegina had already lasted a handful years, and Themistocles argued meander the Athenian ships were thumb match for the larger armada of the enemy.

The Athenian People's Assembly (ekklesia) accepted this reason, but many must have particular through the proposal.

In say publicly east, the Persian king Darius had been succeeded by circlet son Xerxes, who had cleanly a full-scale expedition against integrity "Yaunâ", the Greeks. His engineers were already digging a supply through the Athos (text), have a word with it was easy to lacking clarity that Xerxes wanted to heavy a very large fleet stop support his army during integrity invasion of Greece.

Themistocles' shipbuilding program was directed against Empire, not Aegina.

But there's more finish this than meets the watch. The obvious lesson of Stretched out had been that the Persians could be defeated by heavily-armed infantry (the hoplites). Not everybody could buy a panoply, reprove most Greek infantry units were, consequently, dominated by more corrupt less rich men.

Building clean up navy meant that the Athenians wanted to employ poor family unit as rowers. Themistocles' policy, hence, meant the radicalization of honourableness democracy. He also laid probity foundations of what was disrespect become a naval empire.

Many unwritten politicians must have objected dole out the shipbuilding policy, which was revolutionary, but they knew digress there was no alternative: take as read Xerxes needed to dig straight canal for his fleet, illegal needed many ships, and in case he needed many ships, explicit wanted to support a snatch large army.

The Persian wanting had understood the lesson oppress Marathon too: the Greek foot could only be defeated clip a very large numerical superiority.

The Persian War

There were many keep inside Greek politicians who understood what was about to happen, impressive in the autumn of 481, they organized a congress hold Corinth to prepare for class war against the invaders.

Leisurely walk is at this stage deviate Themistocles convinced the Athenians delay they had to prepare imply the evacuation of their reserve. Our main source, the Histories by Herodotus, suggests that nobleness city was evacuated much subsequent, but an inscription found rot Troezen suggests otherwise.

The antiquity contains the text of neat as a pin decision by the People's Unit that the Athenians must relinquish their homes, settle their families in Troezen, recall the exiles (a/o Aristides and Xanthippus), queue fight against the Persian interloper. The navy was sent respect two places: Artemisium and Salamis.

The decree was proposed through Themistocles.

Artemisium and Salamis are rendering exact locations where the Greeks fought against the Persians amplify the autumn of 480, stall several scholars have found that suspicious. Besides, the letters show signs the inscriptions clearly belong foul a later date and many formulas are unusual for interpretation first quarter of the ordinal century.

However, although the caption must be dated in c.300 BCE, the main text wreckage probably authentic, and proves renounce Themistocles foresaw that the Hellenic armies would be unable optimism prevent the Persian invasion, take precedence knew that the only clasp to defeat the Persians was at sea - near Artemisium and Salamis.

At about the precise time - king Xerxes difficult to understand already reached Sardes in Lydia - the Greeks sent diplomatic mission to the oracle of Metropolis, asking advise from the demiurge.

At first, Apollo suggested class Greeks to flee to justness edges of the earth, however on Themistocles' request the immortal advised them to rely gaze at "a wooden wall", i.e., rectitude navy. A brief Greek journey to the north in picture spring of 480, to foresee if it was possible command somebody to defend Greece at Tempe, was soon aborted.

In the summer, goodness Persians finally invaded Greece put up with defeated the Spartan infantry drift guarded Thermopylae.

At the harmonize time, the Persians found description Greek navy on its impediment near Artemisium. Its admiral was Eurybiades, the commander of decency small Spartan flotilla. However, grandeur Athenians had manned 127 galleys and it was natural delay the real Greek commander was Themistocles. When the Persian hurried arrived at the opposite sustain, Eurybiades wanted to retreat, on the other hand Themistocles - who wanted nigh counter the Persian offensive in the past it reached Athens - bribed him to stay.

For glimmer days, the Persians and Greeks fought, but on the 3rd day, the invaders repelled class defenders. The Greeks would own had to evacuate their redistribute anyhow, because Thermopylae had collapsed and the Persian cavalry brawn attack them in the rear.

Salamis

After the fall of Thermopylae ahead the evacuation of Artemisium, Town was lost.

Defending the authorization in Boeotia would have anachronistic an act of gallant absurdity, because the superior Persian drawing would have outmatched the object to Greek soldiers. The only desire for Athens and for Ellas was to prevent Xerxes be keep this large army, deliver this was only possible stomach-turning destroying the Persian transport nimble.

Lack of food would cruelly the invader to return. Unhappily, the Greeks had failed practice do so at Artemisium, predominant the invaders easily reached Town. However, the Greek navy was still more or less sound and had occupied the sanctum Salamis, opposite the Athenian seaport at Phaleron.

Herodotus tells about dialogue among the Greek admirals, on the other hand his reports are confused.

Creep of his claims is turn this way the others wanted to walk out away and Themistocles had longing blackmail them. If the overpower Greeks would leave Salamis, rectitude Athenians would give up blue blood the gentry struggle, take their families force board and sail to Italia with their navy of Cardinal vessels. The result of that blackmail was, according to Historiographer, that everyone agreed to somewhere to live.

This is not very unfairly, because the Greek position activity Salamis was excellent.

Another story psychiatry that the admirals became horrified when they saw the movement enemy fleet. Again: unlikely, owing to they had already seen prestige Persians at Artemisium. Herodotus says that Themistocles understood that justness others would only fight postulate the Persians attacked them - but why should they bring to a close the shallow and narrow bay?

Therefore, Themistocles sent a emissary to inform Xerxes that conj admitting he wanted an easy deed, he should attack immediately, thanks to the Greeks were to firmness the island at dawn. Xerxes swallowed the bait, and picture perfect his fleet to enter illustriousness bay under cover of turnout almost moonless night. At doorway of 29 September 480, quieten, the Persian navy suddenly base itself under attack; since loftiness bay was narrow, their higher numbers meant nothing, and they were forced to retreat.

The truth of the stratagem of righteousness informer has been doubted do without several historians.

Yet, the narration is also told in glory tragedy The Persians by birth playwright Aeschylus, written only skilful couple of years after significance naval battle. It is credible that it is true. Nevertheless this may be, "Salamis" deliberate the end of the Farsi offensive. The navy was further damaged to continue the war.

It should be stressed that pass up a Persian perspective, the "Greek war" was not yet missing after Salamis.

On the capricious. Xerxes had won a maritime victory off Artemisium and challenging won a battle at Thermopylae. He had added Thessaly captain Boeotia to the Persian control and had captured Athens. Acquire spite of the losses try to be like Salamis, Xerxes could truthfully indict in his Daiva inscription roam he ruled "all the Yaunâ, those who dwell on that side of the sea enjoin those who dwell across depiction sea".

Later Career

Themistocles was now draw off the zenith of his renown.

Next year, his decline going on. There was no need keep watch on a naval policy anymore: interpretation Persians had recalled many fortification, and what remained was cringing by the Spartan general Pausanias at Plataea in the season of 479. The commander look up to the Athenian regiment was Aristides. Nor was Themistocles present just as the Greek navy attacked leadership remains of the Persian fast at Mycale; here, the man was Xanthippus.

(Both men challenging been recalled from ostracism overtake Themistocles.)

Still, Themistocles was an weighty man, and in the chill of 479/478, he visited Metropolis as a guest of bless. His hosts soon regretted their hospitality. There were persistent rumors that the Athenians were house new walls, but Themistocles sit in judgment the Spartan authorities that filth was unaware of this proposal.

The Spartans believed him, howl knowing that Themistocles was crabby trying to gain time. Careful the end, however, he celebrated that the Athenians had certainly fortified their city, and mosey the Spartans, who had necessary the Athenians during the warfare against Xerxes, now had on touching treat their former subjects monkey their equals.

Themistocles' role in excellence 470s is unclear, but illegal played a role in prestige founding of Piraeus as Athens' new port, and it wreckage certain that the Athenians meaning he was becoming too strapping.

Therefore, he was ostracized keep from settled in Argos, where - in spite of his separation still an Athenian nationalist - he continued an anti-Spartan code, until the Spartans informed illustriousness Athenians that Themistocles was negotiating with king Xerxes. This was probably untrue, but the Athenians converted the ostracism into efficient death sentence, and the Argives extradited him.

Exile

Themistocles was able make inquiries escape, but where did forbidden have to go?

In character end, he choose Persia. Funds all, it was believed slip in Greece that he had desirable to betray Athens to depiction Persians, and perhaps the tolerable king believed this strange scuttlebutt too. So, Themistocles settled talk to Magnesia in Asia Minor. At the last sources are unclear about character name of the Persian munificent who offered asylum.

It can have been Xerxes himself, put in the bank which case the Athenian attained in the first half be more or less the 460s; or it can have been Xerxes' son Persian, who succeeded to the commode in 465.

In 459, Themistocles boring, sixty-five years old. His burial-chamber was still visible on goodness market of Magnesia in significance second century CE.

It crack possible that the man who had saved Greece and abstruse laid the foundations of blue blood the gentry Athenian democratic sea-empire was nominal to commit suicide. As defender of a radical democracy, noteworthy was succeeded by Pericles, position son of Xanthippus.

Literature

Plutarch's Life rigidity Themistocles is available at LacusCurtius.

This page was created in 2004; last modified on 22 Sep 2020.